https://doi-001.org/1025/17640524948753

ZiyiJiang

Juntendo University

Dongchang Huating Community, Dongchangfu District, Liaocheng City, Shandong Province

corresponding author：1191399404@qq.com

1 Introduction

As a modern combat sport developed from China’s traditional martial arts, Sanda has gradually transformed from practical combat techniques to regulated competitive events since the 20th century, driven by the national sports system and military-police training systems. It has become one of the fully-contact combat sports officially recognized by the International Wushu Federation, holding a significant position in domestic and international fighting competitions. The global sports field is undergoing a new wave of transformation characterized by digitalization and intelligence. Electronic protective gear and sensor-based scoring systems have been widely adopted in sports like Taekwondo to enhance the objectivity and transparency of scoring. Inertial sensors, wearable devices, and motion capture technology are increasingly becoming essential tools for evaluating striking power, technical efficiency, and training load in combat sports. Virtual reality and mixed reality platforms are also being used to simulate real combat scenarios, improving athletes’ reaction capabilities and decision-making levels. Against this macro backdrop, how to build a “smart competition” development path with Chinese martial arts characteristics while respecting the traditional combat culture of Sanda and drawing on these mainstream digital solutions has become an urgent contemporary challenge.

Compared to sports like Taekwondo and boxing that have widely adopted electronic scoring systems and smart protective gear, Sanda still faces significant shortcomings in technical methods and data foundations. Most Sanda competitions currently rely heavily on referees’ visual judgments and experience-based decisions. In scenarios involving multiple targets, high-intensity confrontations, and complex multi-dimensional techniques, factors like obstructions, limited viewing angles, and rapid movement complexity make it difficult to ensure complete objectivity and consistency. Systematic research on AI applications in sports reveals that while AI shows remarkable potential in posture recognition and action classification, challenges remain in handling high-speed movements, intense confrontations, frequent obstructions, and complex combinations of actions, particularly regarding recognition accuracy and real-time performance. Although studies on Sanda combat techniques have begun exploring multi-source sensor data (e.g., joint trajectories and limb angles) to build posture recognition frameworks, most efforts remain at the laboratory or small-sample validation stage, creating a noticeable gap between theoretical research and real-world competitive environments. Existing literature also highlights the lack of unified standards and best practices in sensor deployment, sampling frequency selection, and data processing workflows for combat sports. This results in limited comparability across studies and hinders the large-scale adoption and promotion of these technologies in Sanda.

In practical applications, digital innovations for Sanda and related martial arts have emerged sporadically. For instance, researchers have developed an auxiliary teaching system that integrates machine vision and human motion recognition, using motion completion assessment and real-time feedback to enhance instructional efficiency. Meanwhile, studies are exploring the creation of AI-powered coaching systems based on big data analytics, designed to provide coaches with decision support in three key areas: motion correction, training load monitoring, and tactical recommendations.

These efforts primarily focus on localized application scenarios, such as recognizing specific kicking techniques, managing classroom instruction in single sessions, or providing individual training feedback. However, they have yet to establish a comprehensive framework that integrates the evolution of competition rules, the development of training systems, and the coordinated advancement of technical equipment and data platforms. In contrast, electronic protective gear and scoring systems in taekwondo and similar disciplines have become deeply integrated with competition regulations, forming an integrated solution that covers scoring, penalty decisions, and safety protection. This highlights the lag in sanda’s development in areas like intelligent scoring, quantification of competitive behaviors, and data-driven training. Existing research tends to either emphasize narratives of traditional martial arts culture and project history or focus on isolated technical experiments, lacking systematic analysis that unifies the internal logic of “historical evolution—modern transformation—digitalization path.” This gap precisely constitutes the key motivation for this study.

Addressing these limitations, this study bridges the gap between Sanda’s traditional foundations and modern competitive practices by integrating digital technologies and smart sports perspectives, proposing an analytical framework of “From Traditional Martial Arts to Intelligent Competition”. Specifically, the paper examines two key dimensions: First, it traces Sanda’s evolution from military close-combat techniques and traditional martial arts combat skills into a regulated competitive sport, re-examining how its technical systems, competition structures, and training paradigms have been continuously redefined within national sports policies and global combat sports landscapes. Second, it systematically evaluates the latest applications of artificial intelligence, wearable sensors, virtual reality, and smart scoring systems in combat sports, analyzing their adaptability and limitations in Sanda scenarios. Based on these insights, the study proposes future-oriented digital development pathways and technical roadmaps for the sport.

This study addresses three core questions: First, how the evolutionary logic of Sanda’s transformation from traditional martial arts to modern competitive sports lays the foundation for its digital transition; Second, what key bottlenecks in technical methods and governance structures currently hinder intelligent development in Sanda; Third, how Sanda can establish a globally competitive intelligent competitive development path with local cultural characteristics by drawing on international digitalization experiences in combat sports. Through systematic analysis and theoretical integration of these three aspects, this paper aims to provide an analytical framework that combines historical depth with technological foresight for the high-quality development of martial arts Sanda in the digital sports era.

2 Historical Evolution of Sanda

The development of Sanda as a sport can be seen as a typical path of evolution from traditional Chinese martial arts to modern competitive combat sports. Initially, Sanda originated from unarmed combat and grappling techniques in traditional Chinese martial arts, taking root with the emergence of the concept of “Sanshou” during the Republican era and the trend toward practical combat training in martial arts schools. Historical records indicate that the “Sanda” sport “integrates various fist techniques, leg techniques, and grappling skills, synthesizing the five-thousand-year history of Chinese martial arts. Through the efforts of predecessors, it gradually established rules and evolved into the now widely recognized ‘Sanda’ sport.”

After entering the new China, Sanda was promoted in the military and police system, becoming part of close combat and physical training. According to Wikipedia, “Sanda (Sandai) is a combat system initially developed by the Chinese military based on traditional martial arts and modern combat techniques,” and this military and police training background laid the basic framework of Sanda for practical combat and integrated offense and defense.

With the advancement of sports system reform and the competitive development of martial arts, Sanshou has gradually shifted from military and police combat training to a national competitive sport. Since the 1980s, the national sports authorities have established unified competition rules, scoring systems, and training standards, promoting the standardization and institutionalization of Sanshou. Scholars have pointed out that “the evolution of martial arts Sanshou from traditional martial arts into China’s modern combat techniques to compete with global combat sports makes its development significant.”

In this context, sanda has changed from the concept of “combat” to “competition” organization, and its technical content has also changed from pure fist, leg and throw to a system characterized by rules and structured training.

As illustrated in Figure 1, the evolution of Sanda (Chinese kickboxing) follows a non-linear trajectory rather than a simplified linear progression, progressing through multiple stages: traditional roots → militarization/police adaptation → competitive development → internationalization (see Figure 1 “Multi-stage Historical Evolution of Sanda”). Throughout this evolution, the technical system has continuously expanded: while early Sanda emphasized grappling and leg techniques, modern Sanda focuses on the “three-dimensional integration” approach—combining long-range kicks, close-range punches, and close-quarters takedowns—alongside advancements in scientific fitness training, systematic training cycles, and statistical analysis of techniques.

The historical evolution of Sanda reflects the deep integration of traditional martial arts combat spirit with modern competitive sports systems. From its earliest form of unregulated free combat to the modern integrated system combining punches, kicks, throws, holds, and takedowns, and now at the starting point of digital and intelligent development, Sanda has not only preserved its cultural roots but also gradually transformed into a globally competitive combat sport that meets the demands of sports industry development. Figure 1 visually illustrates this evolutionary path, establishing a theoretical framework for further exploration of its modern transformation and digital development in this study.

Table 1. Key Historical Stages and Institutional Transformations in the Development of Sanda

3 Modern Transformation of Sanda

The evolution of modern Sanshou embodies the dynamic interplay between traditional martial arts combat philosophies, military combat systems, and contemporary sports science. As the sports industry modernizes, training methodologies advance, and global demand for martial arts grows, Sanshou has undergone a systematic transformation from cultural heritage to modern athletic discipline. This chapter systematically examines Sanshou’s modernization through four key dimensions: rule system modernization, scientific training methodologies, sport-oriented technical styles, and enhanced psychological-tactical frameworks.

From a regulatory framework perspective, modern Sanshou has evolved from the relatively informal combat practices of traditional “bare-handed fighting” into a competitive sport with clearly defined institutional boundaries, quantifiable scoring metrics, and standardized competition environments. The modern Sanshou rules system not only standardizes competition venues, time structures, scoring mechanisms, and violation judgments, but also significantly reduces competition risks through safety equipment and medical supervision protocols. Table 2 highlights the fundamental institutional differences between the two: Traditional martial arts competitions often rely on sectarian or regional rules lacking unified judging procedures and quantifiable standards, while modern Sanshou operates under unified standards established by the General Administration of Sport of China and the International Wushu Federation. Official regulations explicitly define criteria such as strike effectiveness, scoring for grappling techniques, and control of competition zones. This highly institutionalized regulatory system not only enhances fairness in competitions but also promotes data-driven and quantifiable management in sports training, ultimately establishing Sanshou as a modern combat sport that meets international sporting event requirements.

Table 2. Comparative Analysis of Modern Sanda Competition Rules and Classical Martial Arts Rule Systems

Secondly, from the perspective of training systems, modern sanda training has completely departed from the traditional martial arts approach that relied on master-apprentice relationships and experience, shifting to a sports science-driven cyclical training structure. Table 3 clearly demonstrates the scientific planning model of modern sanda training from macrocycle, mesocycle to microcycle. In this model, training is no longer a simple accumulation of strength, technique, or endurance, but rather a rational arrangement of physical peak performance through cyclical operations. The preparation phase emphasizes building physical foundations, such as maximum strength, basic aerobic capacity, and foundational technical proficiency. During the specialized phase, training focuses shifts to speed, specialized strength (e.g., striking power), agility, and combat strategies. The pre-competition phase prioritizes simulated real combat, targeted tactical optimization, and weight management. The recovery phase focuses on repairing the nervous system and preventing sports injuries. Cyclical training enables more precise load regulation in sanda, allowing athletes to achieve peak performance in critical competitions.

Table 3. Periodization Model of Modern Sanda Training (Weekly, Monthly, and Cyclical Phases)

At the core of modern sanda training, five fundamental competencies are prioritized: power, speed, reaction, tactics, and mental resilience. Figure 2 (Modern Training System Architecture) visually demonstrates how these multidimensional capabilities synergize. Power forms the foundation for striking force, grappling control, and physical confrontation. Speed determines movement efficiency, combo execution pace, and offensive-defense rhythm. Reaction capability directly impacts decision-making efficiency in fast-paced combat scenarios. Tactical dimensions encompass spatial control, rhythm adjustment, offensive diversion, and defensive counterattacks. Mental resilience significantly influences competitive stress management, focus concentration, and on-the-spot response. Unlike traditional martial arts that emphasize “intention, breath, and power” as core training principles, modern sanda employs quantifiable metrics (such as striking speed, reaction time, and peak force) to monitor these dimensions, transforming abstract competency frameworks into measurable, trainable, and assessable scientific systems.

The evolution of modern Sanshou is also characterized by its sport-oriented technical style. While maintaining the traditional “three-in-one” system (kicking, striking, and grappling), contemporary matches feature faster pacing, streamlined techniques, and strategic applications. Kicking techniques primarily include side kicks, whip kicks, and front kicks, while punching techniques emphasize straight punches, side punches, and combinations. Grappling emphasizes rapid clinching, positional control, and counterattacks. Guided by competition rules, athletes often adopt a strategic framework of “impact scoring—territory control—rhythm suppression,” which contrasts sharply with the traditional martial arts’ emphasis on “diverse combat techniques.” The technical evolution of modern Sanshou reflects the logic of competitive sports: efficiency, stability, and repeatability.

The integration of training technology has significantly accelerated the modernization of Sanda. By leveraging advanced tools like video analysis, motion capture, muscle strength assessments, and combat data analytics, coaches can now precisely evaluate athletes’ technical execution, identify movement flaws, and analyze tactical decision-making patterns. Modern competitive Sanda training has progressively incorporated auxiliary systems including electronic protective gear testing, reaction targets, impact force monitors, and wearable devices, transforming training from experience-based to evidence-driven.

Figure 2. Integrated Modern Training Framework for Sanda: Strength–Speed–Reaction–Tactical–Psychological Model

The modern transformation of Sanda has undergone comprehensive reshaping across multiple dimensions, including rule systems, training frameworks, technical methodologies, and psychological tactics. As demonstrated by the institutionalization, scientific rigor, and systematic logic in Table 2, Table 3, and Figure 2, Sanda has evolved beyond its traditional martial arts roots to become a highly professionalized combat sport that meets international standards and aligns with modern athletic development. This transformation not only elevates Sanda’s competitive level but also lays a solid foundation for its future advancement into digital and intelligent domains.

4 Digital Transformation of Sanda

With the rapid advancement of technologies such as artificial intelligence, sports biomechanics, wearable sensors, and virtual reality (VR/XR), the sport of Sanda is undergoing a profound digital transformation. The traditional training model, which primarily relied on experience and master-apprentice inheritance, is transitioning into a modern sports technology system driven by data, systematic, and intelligent. This chapter systematically explores the pathways and logic of Sanda’s digital development through four key aspects: technology integration, intelligent training processes, digitalized referee systems, and the construction of smart ecosystems.

From a technical perspective, the training and management systems of Sanshou have progressively integrated digital tools across multiple operational phases. As shown in Table 4, current Sanshou training encompasses various technological modules including motion capture systems, wearable smart devices, AI scoring platforms, physiological monitoring systems, tactical visualization tools, and intelligent venue equipment. Among these, IMU inertial sensors, OpenPose-based posture recognition systems, and smart strike measurement devices have been implemented in national teams and select provincial squads. Meanwhile, VR-based combat simulations, XR mixed reality training, and automated referee systems remain in the pilot implementation phase. These technologies share a common characteristic: they establish a cyclical training framework through “real-time measurement—quantitative feedback—training optimization,” transforming the previously subjectively assessed training process into evidence-based decision-making.

Table 4. Applied and Potential Digital Technologies in Sanda Training, Judging, and Performance Analytics

Artificial intelligence (AI) is revolutionizing the framework for Sanshou (Chinese martial arts) technique recognition and performance evaluation. By leveraging computer vision and deep learning algorithms, practitioners ‘movements can be translated into critical metrics like skeletal point coordinates, peak force measurements, and reaction time sequences. Table 5 reveals distinct model performance in Sanshou technique identification: HRNet achieves the highest accuracy rate of 92.8%, making it ideal for scientific research and high-precision applications, while MediaPipe and MoveNet, with their faster processing speeds, excel at real-time feedback during training sessions. AlphaPose maintains 90.1% recognition accuracy even under occlusion conditions, demonstrating its suitability for Sanshou’s fast-paced combat dynamics and frequent body contact. Consequently, AI-based posture recognition technology not only replaces manual video analysis but also provides quantitative deviation data, offering scientific foundations for technique correction, movement optimization, and injury risk prediction.

Table 5. Accuracy Comparison of AI Pose Recognition Systems in Sanda Training

The essence of digitalization lies not in isolated technology stacking, but in building a synergistic intelligent training ecosystem. Figure 3 illustrates the architecture of the intelligent sanda system, progressing from foundational data collection (motion capture devices, smart protective gear, physiological sensors) through mid-level data processing and analysis (AI posture recognition, strike force modeling, tactical visualization systems) to upper-layer application modules (intelligent training feedback, automated scoring, injury monitoring, cloud-based competitive strategy analysis). This framework establishes a closed-loop system of “athlete-coach-system-data”, transforming traditional linear training processes into real-time dynamic control systems. The core advantage of this intelligent ecosystem is its ability to integrate all training data, creating athlete “digital profiles” through long-term longitudinal tracking. This enables personalized training, cyclical load management, and game strategy formulation.

In training, digitalization has significantly advanced the methodology of Sanda (Chinese kickboxing) training. Unlike traditional methods that relied on coaches’ visual judgment of technique execution, digital systems now provide quantitative feedback through metrics like force curves during strikes, reaction time, footwork patterns, and heart rate changes. For instance, smart punching targets record punching speed, force, and angle; AI-powered tactical analysis tracks success rates, offensive frequency, and spatial control during sparring; while physiological monitoring systems assess recovery status, fatigue levels, and stress indices. This data-driven approach enables more rational and personalized training load planning.

In terms of competition officiating, digitalization has enhanced the international appeal of Sanda. AI recognition technology assists in evaluating hit validity, illegal strikes, and out-of-bounds calls, reducing human errors and improving fairness. Meanwhile, multi-camera systems enable Hawk-Eye-like ‘technical replay reviews,’ boosting the credibility of major tournaments.

Figure 3. Intelligent Sanda Ecosystem Architecture

5 Comparative Analysis

The digital transformation of Sanda (Chinese kickboxing) is advancing rapidly yet remains underdeveloped. Compared to mainstream international combat sports, it still lags behind in three key areas: technical framework architecture, data governance capabilities, and digitalization of training methodologies. A comparative analysis reveals distinct characteristics: progressive enhancement in training systems, relatively weaker competitive frameworks, and an ecosystem still in its formative stages. By benchmarking against Taekwondo, boxing, Mixed Martial Arts (MMA), and fencing, we can clearly identify both the strengths and structural weaknesses in Sanda’s digital evolution.

From the perspective of electronic scoring and sensor systems, Sanda remains in its pilot phase with no internationally unified sensor evaluation standards established. In contrast, Taekwondo and fencing have developed mature electronic protective gear and sensing systems that can objectively identify valid hits and enable rapid decision-making. Currently, Sanda’s judging system still heavily relies on human judgment. To advance the sport, increased R&D investment is needed in areas such as impact sensing technology, pressure detection systems, and smart protective gear.

While Sanda has implemented video replay systems in major competitions, its rules, equipment, and referee training standards remain non-internationalized. In contrast, sports like Taekwondo, boxing, and MMA have established systematic video replay protocols that reduce misjudgments and enhance credibility. This highlights the need for Sanda to develop a unified international framework of “challenge-review-final adjudication” and promote standardized digital refereeing systems.

In digital training, Sanda has established foundational capabilities including heart rate monitoring, IMU inertial sensors, and impact force measurement devices. However, its application remains limited to national teams and select provincial squads. In contrast, MMA training systems demonstrate significantly more mature advancements in biomechanical monitoring, motion analysis, and recovery management. To achieve scientific training in Sanda, it is essential to strengthen long-term data management, implement real-time training load monitoring, and establish intelligent feedback mechanisms.

In the fields of AI and tactical data analysis, Sanda’s applications are primarily confined to research, lacking practical systems for coaches and athletes. Table 6 clearly shows that MMA and Taekwondo have established comprehensive data analysis ecosystems, including key metrics like strike frequency, movement patterns, and control duration. Moving forward, Sanda needs to achieve productization and standardization in AI-powered motion recognition, tactical modeling, and match data extraction.

As shown in Table 6, Sanda lags behind sports like Taekwondo, MMA, and fencing in overall digital maturity, particularly in electronic scoring systems, smart venue infrastructure, tactical data platforms, and injury monitoring technologies. However, Sanda demonstrates exceptional digital potential in technical complexity, competitive intensity, and skill diversity, making it particularly suitable for adopting AI-powered posture recognition, multimodal sensor fusion, and intelligent tactical modeling. This digital lag stems not from technical limitations, but rather from underdeveloped industry standards, inadequate data governance frameworks, and immature application ecosystems. Once a systematic advancement mechanism is established, Sanda’s digital acceleration potential will become remarkably significant.

Table 6. Comparative Digital Maturity of Sanda and Other Combat Sports

Conclusion

This study systematically reviews the historical evolution of Sanda’s transition from traditional martial arts to modern competitive sports, while analyzing the systemic innovation pathways in technical training, competition management, and performance analysis driven by digitalization. Historical development reveals that Sanda gradually transitioned from empirical practices to scientific approaches in establishing rule systems, competitive standards, and training models. The modern transformation manifests through the construction of high-performance training systems encompassing strength, speed, reaction, tactics, and psychological aspects. Compared with digital practices in mature combat sports like Taekwondo, Boxing, and MMA, Sanda still lags significantly in electronic scoring systems, long-term data governance, injury monitoring, and tactical analysis. However, Sanda’s inherent technical diversity and complex offensive-defensive structures naturally align with digital tools, offering substantial potential for intelligent development. The proposed intelligent ecosystem framework provides a reference for establishing an integrated training-competition-monitoring system in Sanda’s future. In summary, Sanda’s digitalization is not a marginal improvement but a systematic project reshaping training paradigms, enhancing competitive fairness, and promoting internationalization. With the maturation and standardization of technical systems, Sanda is poised to enter the era of intelligent competition, achieving comprehensive scientific and global development.

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